---- Sunday - September 7, 2008 - 5:06:51 PM - Navajo Nation Time ----

Year	Navajo History	World History
1821	Mexico declared independence from Spain. Legal status of Indians abolished. Navajos, Apaches, Hopis, Paiutes, Utes, and Commanches comes under the status of Mexican authorities. The new Mexican Republic welcomed Anglo-American colonists and gave free land under the "empresario" system, and many tax benefits. Mexico believed the new colonist would serve as buffers against United States' expansion. Feb 24 - The Plan of Iguala was adopted by Mexico's revolutionary government. It declared that all inhabitants of New Spain without distinction, whether Indian, Europeans, or Africans, were citizens of that monarchy, with the right to be employed in any post according to their merit and virtues and that the person and property of every citizen should be respected by the government. These same principles were also recognized in the Treaty of Cordova between Spain and Mexico dated August 24, 1821, and in the Mexican Declaration of Independence, proclaimed September 28, 1821. March 8 - From Jemez, Juan Antonio Cabeza de Vaca informed Governor Melgares that he had been dealing with the Navajo Chief Joaquín - now designated "General" by the Spaniards - in an effort to have returned cattle stolen by Navajos during the recent hostilities. Chief Joaquín had also requested assistance from the Spaniards in preparing the ground at Pedro Padilla near the Rio Puerco for planting their crops. July 6 - When the Alcalde at Jemez complained to Melgares that landholders in his jurisdiction, fearful of Navajo raids, had moved away in violation of the Comandante-General's 1804 order, which forbade the abandonment of frontier points on penalty of loss of property and lands, he urged that they be forced to return. Melgares replied that the 1804 ruiling held unless there was something in the 1820 Ley Constitutional to the contrary. July 8 - Fray Antonio Cacho, with the knowledge and consent of the Father Custodian, left the Mission at Zuni and returned to Santa Fé because of the imminent danger from the hostile Navajos. Melgares directed a request to the Father Custodian that Zuni not be abandoned. July 9 - Captain Bartolomé Baca, stationed at Cebolleta, expressed to Governor Melgares his suspicion as to the sincerity of the Navajos' desire for peace and requested that he be furnished with auxiliary forces to punish the Navajos should such a course become necessary. The governor ordered a detail of 40 armed men with additional munitions to proceed to Cebolleta. July 25 - Captain Juan Antonio Cabeza de Vaca led an expedition of 225 men against the Navajos. They left from Jemez equipped with 135 escopetas, 3500 cartridges, 150 lances, 155 bows, 3625 arrows, 141 horses, and 126 mules, but the record of their activities, if recorded, is missing. Sept 16 - Two male adults and a five year old Laguna boy were given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priest at Laguna. The three had been killed recently during a Navajo raid in that area. Sept 25 - In late September - about the 25th - Captain Francisco Xavier Chávez campaigned against the Navajos. Twenty-one warriors were killed, seven captives of both sexes taken in addition to 400 horses and 2112 sheep. Navajo cornfields were laid waste and the campaigners drove the Navajos from the Sierra Tunicha, "su iglesia, mas de cien leguas de su centro." Sept 28 - Mexico's independence from Spain was proclaimed and the Province of New Mexico, including most of the Navajo country, came under Mexico's jurisdiction. Three months later - December 26 - Mexico's independence was celebrated in Santa Fe. Oct 23 - Juan Armijo returned from a 21-day campaign against the Navajos having left from Cebolleta on October 3. Early in the march, he was beset by insurrections and most of the Spanish citizens accompanying the expeditions deserted; only the Isleta and Laguna Indian allies remained. The expedition marched to the Chaco Valley, passed Chief Cayetano's farm, and proceeded north towards the Carizzo Mountains. On the 19th day out, the only engagement of the expedition took place in which seven Navajos and two of their horses were killed, five horses were captured along with "a baby not yet weaned" and all the Navajos' supplies. The Spaniards suffered no losses. They cut the ears from four of the seven Navajos killed to remit to the governor in Santa Fe. Dec 8 - A spanish expedition against the Navajos returned to Santa Fé and reported that the Navajos had not been engaged in combat "... due to the Navajo enemies having humiliated themselves saying they did not want to fight, alleging themselves to be at peace, resulting in the chieftains and a headmen coming to the capital to treat of it with Señor Governor Colonel Don Facundo Melgares." Dec 9 - José Quintana, a Conchití Indian, was given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priest at the pueblo. He had been killed by the Navajos. Dec 18 - Maria de los Angeles, two or three year old Navajo captive and "servant" of the soldier Juan Tenorio, was baptized at Santa Fe. earlier the same year, another two year old Navajo girl had been baptized at Santa Fé and place in the house of Fray don Francisco Madariaga, and a Navajo girl, purchased by Tomás Sánchez, was baptized at Belen.	Sequoya, a Cherokee, developed a Cherokee alphabetical lettering system that was used to teach thousands of Cherokees to read and write in their own language. The Spanish governor granted a charter to Moses Austin for the settlement of 300 families in Texas. His son, Stephen Fuller Austin, established the first legal settlement of Anglo-Americans in Texas in 1822. The official U.S. occupation of Florida takes place. Andrew Jackson was made military Governor. Congress rejected a proposal by John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, that the U.S. convert to the metric system. Hudson's Bay Company acquired the Northwest Company in Canada. Bolivar defeated the Spanish Royalist Army at Carabobo and assured the independence of Venezuela. Peru, Mexico, and Guatemala became independent from Spain. Turks put down revolts in Wallachia and Modavia. Greeks seize Tripolitsa, the main Turkish fortress in the Peloponnesus, and massacre 10,000 Turks. The Greek War of Independence began. Congress of Laibach among European powers authorized the use of Austrian troops to suppress revolts in Naples and Piedmont. French Archaeologist and Linguist, Jean-Francois Champollion, deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphics using the Rosetta Stone.
1822	Feb 20 - Two soldiers, stationed at Valverde, killed by Navajos during an attack in that area, were buried by the Catholic Priest at Socorro. During the early 1820's, the settlement of Valverde was abandoned due to the frequency with which the Navajos committed depredations there. Feb - Thomas James, a disdainful observer in Santa Fe, recorded that he observed a solitary Navajo "... crossing the public square in the direction of the Governor's house, and driving before him a fat heifer. He went up to the Governor's door, to whom he sent word that he had a present for him, and was admitted. What followed, I learned from Ortise, an old Alcalde, with whom I boarded during the time of my stay in Santa Fe. As he entered the room of the Governor, the Navajo prostrated himself on the face. The Governor stepped towards him and witha spurning motion of the foot, which touched the Indian's head, asked him who he was and what he wanted. The poor Indian arose on his knees and said he was a Navajo, and had come to implore peace for his nation. "We are tired of war and we want peace," said he; "our crops are destroyed, our women and children are starving. Oh! give us peace!" The Governor asked the interpreter what he said, and being told, the christian replied, "Tell him I do not want peace, I want war." With his answer, the Indian was dismissed, the Governor keeping his heifer. The poor fellow came to my store, announced his name and nation, and requested me to go among his tribe and trade ... that they had horses and mules which they would exchange for powder, lead, and tobacco. The Indians are destitute of ammunition and gtuns, and Spanish laws prohibit all trade with them in these articles. I gave him several plugs of tobacco, a knife and other small articles, and told him when he went back to his country to smoke my tobacco with his chiefs and tell them if any Americans came to their country to treat them like brothers. He went off with a guard as far as the outposts on the route to his country. But I have no doubt he was murdered by the Spaniards long before reaching his home..." According to James: "...The next news that came told of a descent made by the Navajos in great force on the settlements in the south, in which they killed all of every age and condition, burned and destroyed all they could not take away with them, and drove away the sheep, cattle, and horses. They came from the south directly towards Santa Fe, sweeping everything before them and leaving the land desolate behind them. They recrossed the Del Norte (Rio Grande) below Santa Fé and passed to the north, laid bare the country around the town of Taos, and then disappeared with all their booty. While this was going on Malgaris (Governor Melgares) was getting out the militia and putting nearly all the inhabitants under arms, preparatory to an expedition. I was requested to go, but I preferred to be a spectator in such a war. The militia of Santa Fé when on parade beggared all description. Falstaff's company was well equipped and well furnished, compared with these troops of Gov. Malgaris. Such a gang of tatterdemalions, I never saw, before or since. They were of all colors, with all kinds of dresses and every species of arms. Some were bareheaded, others were barebacked - some had hats without rims or crowns, and some wore coats without skirts; others again wore coats witout sleeves. Most of them were armed with bows and arrows. A few had guns that looked as if they had been imported by Cortez, while others had iron hoops fastened to the ends of poles, which passed for lances. The doughty Governor, Facundo Malgaris, on foot, in his cloak and chapeau de bras, was reviewing this noble army. He was five feet high, nearly as thick as he was long, ... In the meantime, where was the enemy - the bloodthirsty Navajos? They had returned in safety to their own country with all their plunder, and were even then far beyond the reach of Gov. Malgaris' troop of scarecrows ..." March 15 - Three adult civilians from Los Enlames north of Socorro were given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priest at Tome. The three had been killed by Navajos during a raid. March 8 - Jack Fowler, a trapper, reported in his journal that a Mexican expedition of 700 men left TAos for a campaign against the Navajos. The Indians, pursued by the Mexicans, had ascended a "mountain" and rolled rocks down upon their pursuers who were forced to retreat after capturing only "one old Indian and some two or three horses that were so poor the Nabeho Cold (could) not drive them up the mountains". The expedition returned May 1, 1822. March 19 - Five civilians, killed by Navajos in a recent attack, were given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priests of Socorro and San Felipe. A sixth civilian died later and was buried on the 22nd. April 17 - Joseph Antonio, three year old Navajo boy, "redeemed" from Apaches by Domingo Gallego,a Mexican, was baptized at Abiquiu, and two others, one belonging to Salbador Grionde, were baptized at Belen. A Navajo baby, 15 days old, was baptized and christened Maria Rita at Laguna Mission. April 18 - Six civilians and one "Indio Coyote" servant, all male adults,were given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priest at Tome. All had been killed during a recent Navajo attack along the Rio Grande. Two others, also slain by Navajos, were buried the following day. On the 22nd, one José Miguel, also killed by Navajos, was buried by the Priest at Laguna Mission. April 24 - Governor Melgares ordered the First Alcalde of Santa Fé to make preparations for defense against expecgted hostilities by the Navajos, who, he warned, "... may attempt a bloody vengeance on the inhabitants of the Province." He ordered the Alcaldes each to assemble as soon as possible 50 armed men, and for the peole of the province to be prepared for defense. May 5 - Three adult male residents of Los Enlames were killed by the Navajos and given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priest at Tome. May 6 - Governor Melgares sent notice to all Alcaldes ordering a rendezvous of all troops at Cebolleta, New Mexico, for a campaign against the Navajos. June 15 - It was reported that a delegation of 13 Navajos had been treacherously killed by Mexicans at Jemez Pueblo. The delegation had come to solicit peace from the Mexicans. Referring to "the ungrateful gentile Navajo Nation," Alex García Conde, in Durango, Mexico, wrote: "I am nonetheless convinced that said ungrateful nation, due to the repeated proofs that we have of their infidelity, is still unworthy of the kindness and indulgence with which until now it has been treated by our government." Writing some years afterward, Gregg and James both described the event. According to Gregg: "... On one occasion, a party consisting of several chiefs and warriors of the Navajos assembled at the Pueblo of Cochiti, by invitation of the government, to celebrate a treaty of peace; when the New Mexicans, exasperated no doubt by the remembrance of former outrages, fell upon them unawares and put them all to death ..." James dates the event as February, 1822, and places it at Jemez: "... sixteen Navajo chiefs came into the town of St. James (Jemez), sixty miles below Santa Fé on the Del Norte (Rio Grande), and requested the commander of the fort to allow them to pass on to the Governor at Santa Fe, saing that they had come to make peace. The commander invited them into the fort, smoked with them and made a show of friendship. He had placed a Spaniard on each side of every Indian as they sat and smoked in a circle, and at a signal, each Indian was seized by his two Spanish companions and held fast while others despatched them by stabbing each one to the heart. A Spaniard who figured in this butchery showed me his knife, which he said had killed eight of them. Their dead bodies were thrown over the wall of the fort and covered with a little earth in a gully. A few days afterwards, five more of the same nation appeared on the bank of the river opposite the town and inquired for their countrymen. The Spaniards told them they had gone on to Santa Fe, invited them to come over the river, and said they should be well treated. They crossed and were murdered in the same manner as the others. There again appeared three Indians on the opposite bank, inquiring for their chiefs. They were decoyed across, taken into the town under the mask of friendship, and also murdered in cold blood. In a few days, two more appeared, but could not be induced to cross; when some Spanish horsemen went down the river to intercept them. Perceiving this movement, they fled and no more embassies came in ..." June 23 - Two civilian residents of Belen were given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priest at Socorro. On the same date, another civilian was buried at Picuris by the Priest from Mora. All three had been killed by Navajos during recent raids. June 30 - Manuel Armijo of Albuquerque wrote Governor Melgares describing a recent Navajo attack on the settlement of Atrisco during which they "killed a child and others and wounded a woman." Armijo gave pursuit "as far as the Rio Puerco." July 19 - José Antonio, a San Felipe Indian, was killed by Navajos and given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priest of the pueblo. August 3 - Pedro Chavez, soldier of the Santa Fé Company, was wounded by the Navajos, but escaped, later dying of his wounds. He was given ecclesiastical burial at Laguna by the Catholic Priest of that mission. Fray Francisco Madariaga, Catholic Priest at Tome, gave ecclesiastical burial to Bicente Balejon and Rafael Marquez, two civilians recently killed by Navajos during a raid. Three days later, the Priest at Tomé also buried Antonio José García, resident of Valencia, who also had been killed by Navajos. Sept 21 - Nine days after Governor Melgares advised the Alcaldes of the various districts that peace negotiations were to be held with the Navajos, Antonio Chávez of Belen, reported to the governor that Navajos had committed depredations in that area. They had been pursured to "the PUerto de los Ojos de Toribio" but without success and there the chase was given up. Oct 29 - A Peace Treaty was concluded at Zia Pueblo between the Navajos, represented by their principal leader and two headmen, and Governor Facundo Melgares for the Republic of Mexico. Terms included: "Both parties will forget forever the injuries that have resulted to both from the war;" Navajos remained at liberty to trade and travel in the Province; the mutual exchange of captives held; and "if the Navajos should want a General, it will be 'Chief' Segundo."	Florida was organized as a territory. Rebellion of Negro slaves was discovered and suppressed in Charleston, South Carolina. Negro leader Denmark Vesey was hanged along with 34 others. U.S. President Monroe, proposed U.S. recognition of newly independent Latin American republics. Congress passed a measure to establish diplomatic relations with them. American, Clement C. Moor, wrote the familiar yuletide ballad, "Twas the Night before Christmas", for his children. Augustin de Iturbide was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico. Brazil became independent from Portugal. Greeks drew up liberal constitution and declared independence. Turks seized the island of Chios and massacred most of the Greek inhabitants. The Turkish Army invaded mainland Greece. Congress of Verona discussed Europeans problems, expecially the rebellion in Spain against King Ferdinand VII. Haitians take control of all of Hispaniola, forming the Republic of Haiti. Royal Academy of Music, in London, England, was founded. William Beaumont, Connecticut Physician, began his famous digestion experiments in the exposed stomach of Alexis St. Martin, an injured soldier. Quinin production began in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. First U.S. patent for making false teeth was awarded to W.C. Graham. Inspired by Dante's Inferno (1321), French Romantic Artist, Ferdinand Delacroix, painted "Dante and Virgil Crossing the Styx". At the age of 11, Hungarian Piano virtuoso, and Composer, Frantz Liszt, made his debut in Vienna, Austria.
1823	Feb 12 - A Treaty between the Republic of Mexico and the Navajo Nation was negotiated at Paguate on this date. The terms had been drafted a week earlier at Laguna and included: Navajos to release all Spanish and Mexican captives; return all stolen property; the Mexicans to return all Navajos held captive; the Navajos to be converted to the Catholic Faith and resettle themselves in pueblos where this conversion might be accomplished. The treaty was signed by "General" Joaquín for the Navajos. In case the Navajos did not honor the terms of the treaty, a Plan of War, agreed to by all the Alcaldes, leading citizens, and officers, was drawn up. One thousand men would enter the Navajo Province for the purpose of making war and raiding. Two hundred men would be left in the settlements for ordinary defernse, but the remainder would proceed with arms and ammunition to prosecute the war. Booty taken from the Navajos would be divided among the men actually taking part in the war. Also, if after the peace was celebrated, any Navajo was caught stealing, "... he would be killed in the act or imprisoned if he surrendered or offered no resistance." April 20 - A Navajo girl captive, about three years old, was baptized at Albuquerque and adopted by her godparents. In the same year, 35 other Navajos, captured, purchased, held as servants or otherwise, were baptized. Five at Albuquerque, ten at Santa Fe, five at San Juan, four at Tome, seven at Belen, and one each at Pena Blanca, San Felipe, Abiquiu, and Laguna. April 29 - Fray Manuel Martínez, Catholic Priest of Socorro, gave ecclesiastical burial to six male civilians, residents of Socorro and Las Huertas, who had been killed recently by Navajos during a raid in that area. Four days later, the Priest at Tomé buried two residents of Belen and Sausal who also had been killed by Navajos. May 31 - Fray Juan Caballero, Priest at Belen, gave ecclesiastical burial to 8 civilians, six males and two females, recently killed during "an invasion" by Navajos. Those killed were residents of Sabinal and Los Corrales. June 18 - Governor José Antonio Vizcarra left Santa Fé with a force of 1500 men on a two and one-half months' campaign against the Navajos. On July 6, however, Colonel Don Manuel Armijo with 150 disabeled men returned to Jemez. Going by way of Jemez, the expedition continued to Mesa Azul (Chacra Mesa) and Pueblo Pintado. Near Chaco Canyon, a detachment was sent out to search for the Navajo Chieftain Antonio el Pinto, but failed to encounter him. Continuing west, they saw a few Navajos on their ascent of the Tunicha Mountains, and on July 8, Captain Julian Armijo and his command, who had escorted the disabled men back across the mountains, returned to the main camp at Red Lake and reported having a battle with Navajos in the Tunicha Mountains in which 14 Navajos of both sexes were killed, one Indian girl imprisoned, and five horses and some plunder captured. On July 10, a detachment under Captain Don Juan Cristóbal García returned from a scout to the Carrizo Mountains; three of his men had been wounded. The expedition continued west, scouting the Canyon de Chelly, where they killed one Navajo, took his horses, and wounded another. Going on to Ojo de la Vaca, on July 15, Navajos were attacked on a mesa along the way; one was killed and the others fled. At Ojo de la Vaca, other Navajos were attacked, seven were killed including four warriors, and eight slaves were captured. A little further south another Navajo was met and killed. They continued on towards the Hopi villages of First Mesa "... having had news that there might be some Navajos and also their stock there." Finding non, Vizcarra summoned the Hopi War Captain whooffered to take him "... to where the Navajos had their camp and their stock; telling me that they were at Chellecito, near a mesa that has only one ascent, which they use in time of trouble." Going to Oraibi, on his return, "... three Navajos were sighted. They were chased, but could not be overtaken." On July 21, "Lt. Don Juan Andrés Archuleta, following a track, ... succeeded in attacking a rachneria of Navajos, killing five women and capturing nine slaves of both sexes, and taking 12 horses and mules and 70 head of sheep and goats ... Captain Don Miguel Montoya reported having attacked the Navajos on his march, and succeeded in killing two women and capturing eight slaves of both sexes." On July 24, Lt. Col. Don Antonio Sandoval reported "... that the Navajo Francisco, together with four soldiers ... had requested permission to gather wild onions, which he permitted them to do. Said Navajo with the soldiers met two Navajos on the way, and they succeeded in killing one and taking the other prisoner." The following day, a detachment commanded by Don Julian Armijo returned to "... the Pueblo of Moqui to collect the livestock of the Navajo Segundo, which our Navajo prisoner reported was there. They were found, mixed among the livestock of the Hopis; the report verified, this Navajo was sent with the captain to separate the Navajo livestock." He later returned with 317 head of sheep and goats, and three Hopis, who claimed 39 head as theirs. Vizcarra reprimanded the Hopis, for having deceived him by telling him earlier that there were no Navajo livestock among the Hopi herds, and detained two of the Hopis as guides. Lt. Col. Don Antonio Sandoval "... left for Oraibi, having had news that there might be Navajos there." On July 26, Captain Don José Francisco Ortiz marched back toward Hopi "... to separate Navajo livestock remaining in herds that they did no present ... he returned with 48 head of sheep and goats." On July 28, Vizcarra "... readied a party of 500 men to march to the place where the Navajos were said to have gathered, but from information obtained from the interpreter, Miguel García de Noreiga, regarding lack of water, the expedition was postponed. On the Oraibi Wash July 31, "... two Navajos with three mules appeared ahead. I detached 10 infantry soldiers, but as soon as the Indian saw them, they left the mules and fled. At the end of another hour, three Navajos mounted on horses were sighted ... I detached another 10 men to a point where they could shoot at them, to see if they could wound or kill them ... the Indians saw them. A shot at them was merely a wasted bullet, and they fled. I immediately rounded up the horse herd that had been left grazing ... Ensig Don Diego Luceno, reported that one of the Indians was El Segundo, who was looking for me in order to talk ... but this could not be verified ..." On August 1, "... the tracks of an individual on foot, and barefoot, were found on a path ... he was overtaken and proved to be Navajo; he was killed and his quiver and bow were taken." Going to Red Lake and by the Elephant's Feet, a well-known landmark, on August 8, Vizcarra attacked a Paiute rancheria, mistakenly believing the Indians to be Navajos. From one of the Paiutes detained as a guide, Vizcarra "... learned that the arroyo or canyon called Los Pilares is the same as Chellicito, where the Navajo Juanico should be." Traveling on, they "... came across the tracks of Juanico's horse herd and cattle ... I followed it until seven at night." The next day, August 9, "I continued the march on the trail of the horse herd and the sheep and goats, which were now traveling together ... At noon, ... the Navajos appeared on the ascent to a mesa (Skeleton Mesa) among them Juanico, who shouted from above that he wanted to talk to me. I replied in a few words that I had come to fight ... At the first shots they abandoned their position, but continued opposing us and firing at us, with the intentionof delaying us to give time for the flight of their livestock ... As soon as we reached the top, a drove of cattle and several little herds of sheep and goats were sighted ... I gathered up all of them, left 20 men as guards, and continued on the trail. After going a short distance, the dust of the rest of the livestock was sighted .. I ... continued with 10 mounted men to gather up the herds of sheep and goats that were seen. (The Navajos always fled on superior horses) ..." Lt. Don Manuel Sánchez, with three soldiers, were ordered "... to round up a few cattle that were seen ... Upon moving some 200 paces from me, ... approximately 10 Indians attacked him. I followed behind to protect him ... the Indians fled at our attack, being satisfied with driving off five horses of those with Lt. Sánchez and seizing the ensign's gun, which they took from his hands in the fighting ... No enemy was seen to fall; but Lt. Sánchez killed one of their horses with the only shot he had time to fire, so violently did they attack. The lieutenant, the ensign, and two of the soldiers with him were wounded in the action. I gathered up the wounded ... and ... rounded up the little bunches of livestock that were near there, and driving them, I retired to join those guarding the cows. The Indians withdrew a great distance, ..." The following day, August 10, while camped on Oljayto Creek, Vizcarra "... counted the sheep and goats and cattle taken from the Navajos. Eight-seven cattle were taken ... and the sheep and goats counted here, after having eaten some and killed some ... 405 head-" On August 12, Colonel Don Francisco Salazar, who commanded a detachment scouting upper Laguna Creek west of present Kayenta, recorded that he "... found the trail of sheep and goats, cattle, and horses moving rapidly, heading toward the place called Las Orejas (Bear's Ears). I halted on top of the mesa ..." The next day, he continued following the tracks but failed to overtake the herd. Two days later, on August 15, he came upon a Navajo rancheria, "... overtook two girls and a boy; in an encounter with eight warriors, they wounded a man of my party, but they were not pursued because they fled into rough country ..." ON August 31, later in the afternoon, the expeditin arrived at Santa Fe, having been out 74 days, during which time they killed 50 Navajos, captured 36, and more than 900 head of stock. Their losses included 9 men killed and 12 wounded, plus 13 head of stock lost.         One Albet Pike, who accompanied Vizcara on the campaign, some years later described a Navajo attack on Taos and his experience with Vizcarra. Under "The Inroad of the Nabajo," Pike wrote: "One cry, at least, explained the whole matter, - "Los Malditos y picaros que son los Nabajos." The Nabajos had been robbing them; they had entered the valley below, and were sweeping it of all the flocks and herds - and this produced consternation ... They raise corn, they have vast flocks of sheep, and large herds of horses, they make blankets, too, and sell them to the Spaniards. Their great men have a number of servants under them, and in fact, their government is apparently patriarchal. Some times they choose a captain over the nation; but even then, they obey him or not, just as they please. They live about three days' journey west of this (Taos), and have about ten thousand soulds in their tribe." Pike noted that the Navajo raiding party consisted of about 100 men, and that 15 Navajos were left dead after the battle. Pike continued: "Directly after the inroad (on Taos), I came down to Santa Fe. The Lieutenant Colonel of the province, Viscara, was raising a body of men to go out against the Nabajo, and repay them for this and other depredations later commited upon the people, and he was urgent for me to accompany him - so much so, that I was obliged to comply with his request, and promised to go. Troops were sent for from below, and in the course of four months, the expedition was ready; and we set out upon the Nabajo campaign ... It was in the driest part of the summer that we left Santa Fé and marched toward the country of the Nabajo. We went out by way of Xemes, and then crossing the Rio Puerco, went into the mountains of the Nabajo. We came up with them, fought them, and they fled before us, driving the cattle and sheep with them into a wide sand desert; and we being now out of provisions, were obliged to overtake them or starve. We were two days without a drop of water, and nearly all the animials gave out in consequence of it. On the third day, Viscara, fifteen soldiers, and myself went ahead of the army (which I forgot to say, was thirteen hundred strong). Viscara and his men were mounted. I was on foot, with no clothing except a cloth round my middle, with a lance in one and a rifle in the other. That day I think I ran seventy-five miles, barefooted, and through the burning sand." July 14 - José Lorenzo Sánchez, citizen of La Joya, was killed by Navajos and given ecclesiastical burial inthe Parish church of San Miguel del Socorro. August 15 - Manuel Rojo, an adult male from San Fernando, was buried by the Catholic Priest at Tome. He had been killed by Navajos. The following day, two more adults males from Los Enlames and Tome, were killed by Navajos, and were also buried by the Priest of Tome. The next day, August 17, Antonio José Gutierres, resident of Las Huertas, was given ecclesiastical burial by Fray Manuel Martínez. He had been killed by Navajos during a recent raid. Sept 23 - José Manuel Roibal, citizenof Socorro, was killed by Navajos and given ecclesiastical burial in the Parish church of San Miguel del Socorro by the Catholic Priest there. Dec 20 - One Santiago Montoya reported to Bartolomé Baca, Jefe Político, that Navajo families arriving at the capital increased daily, and that from the headmen El Calletano (Cayentano) and El Chato it had been learned that in the country of the Navajos there were 45 or 46 Americans" ... other than those that had retreated back to American." Montoya added: "We believe this to be true because of some of the pieces these Navajos wear of the said Americans, ..." and that the Anglos had made available to them many things" which could prove dangerous to us - such things as guns, ammunition, and other things."	The Office of Indian Affairs was created with the U.S. War Department. The office was created without congressional authorization. Thomas L. McKenney was appointed as its first head. Oneida Indians settled at Green Bay, Wisconsin. One of the six tribes of the Iroquois confederacy in upper New York State, the Oneida had tried to remain neutral during the Revolutionary War, but they were subjected to punitive measures applied to the other tribes of the Iroquois confederacy who had supported the British. Their reservation near Oneida Lake continued to shrink in size. In 1823, the Oneida were induced to sell their lands, and the first group relocated to Wisconsin. Over the next 10 years, all the Oneida left New York State. U.S. President Monroe announced the Monroe Doctrine in his annual message to Congress. European nations were warned not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere. The U.S. intended not to take part in European wars. Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, was forced to abdicate. Guatemala, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica, form the confederated United Provinces of Central America. Ferdinand VII, backed by French arms, revoked Spain's Constitution. Cruel repression followed. Treaty of Erzurum ended war between the Persians and the Turks. Rugby football originated in England at the Rugby School. Politician and Philanthropist, William Wilberforce, formed an anti-slavery society to abolish the slave trade and slavery itself in British possessions overseas.
1824	At Jemez, 14 Articles of Peace, result of a meeting held at Isleta in December, were signed by Vizcarra, Bartolome Baca, and Antonio El Pinto, “General” of the Navajo Nation and presumably the son of the Antonio El Pinto killed by Apaches in 1793. Feb 9 - It was reported that a small party of Navajos from the Rito Quemado had stolen the horse herd of one Juan Maria Baca. The 12 men sent in pursuit were told by the Navajo Chino at Cebolleta that he would recover the animals and return them to the Mexicans. Chino stated also that “ … on the Rito Quemado there was a small party of Navajos and that it is this party that is doing the harm, … “ Feb 27 - Juan Cruz Baca, Justice at Belen, informed Bartolome Baca that one Toribio Trujillo had appeared before him with three Navajos whom he had captured trespassing on his ranch at Lomita del Berendo. March 11 - The Office of Indian Affairs, headed by Thomas L. McKeney, was created by order of the Secretary of War Calhoun, and superseded the Office of Superintendent of Indian Trade which had been held by McKeney when it was abolished in 1822. McKeney’s new duties included the administration of the “Civilization Fund” established by Congress on March 3, 1819, to provide a permanent annual appropriation of $10,000 for “introducing among the Indians the habits and arts of civilization.” April 3 - The Missouri Intelligencer published a description of the Navajos, written by Nathaniel Patten, then editor of that newspaper. He wrote in part: “NABIJOS”. Between the Spanish settlements of New Mexico and the Pacific Ocean reside a nation of Indians called the Nabijos, … Their skill in manufacturing, and their excellence in some of the useful and ornamental arts, show a decided superiority of genius over all the other tribes of the western continent: even over those, whose contiguity to civilization, had afforded them the benefit of its example and instruction … “ After discoursing on their supposed origin as refuges from Mexico, the editor continued: “It is a more reconcilable supposition, that the Nabijos were originally a different nation, and one whose arts and mode of living have never been adulterated by an intercourse with civilized society. Their power and bravery are proverbial among the Spaniards, who have experienced more molestation and injury from them than from all the other Indians in their vicinity. They once sent to Santa Fe, a large quantity of silver bullion to be molded into dollars, which the Spaniards perfidiously converted to their own use. The Spaniards also prohibited the cultivation and manufacture of tobacco among them, with a view to necessitate them to purchase their own for which they demanded an extravagant price. These, together with other causes of dissatisfaction, have for many years occasioned mutual hostilities, in which they usually triumphed over the pusillanimity of the Spaniards, and made a large proportion of their sheep and mules the spoils of war. A young gentleman, now in this town, accompanied a strong military expedition against them, which defeated them; and obliged them to sue for peace. They killed a Chief who wore shoes, fine woolen stockings, small-clothes, connected at the sides by silver buttons instead of a seam; a hunting shirt and a scarlet cloth cap, the folds of which were also secured by silver buttons. These people do not adopt the usual Indian manner of living in villages, but are a nation of comfortable and independent farmers … They have fine flocks of sheep, abundance of mules, and herds of cattle of a superior kind. They cultivate corn, tobacco, and cotton which they manufacture into cloth. They have gardens in which they raise several kinds of esculent vegetables; and have peace orchards, the fruit of which resembles our apricots. Several articles of their woolen manufacture equal the quality of ours. We have seen a coverlet, made by them, the texture of which was excellent, the figures ingenious, and the colors permanent and brilliant … The Spaniards imitate the manufacture of this article, but their imitations are far inferior to the original. They made baskets, the small dishes of osiers, so compactly worked as to hold water without the least leakage. The twigs, before being wrought, are variously colored, and so skillfully put together that the finished vessel presents different figures. Their bridles are made of tanned leather, and often embellished with silver ornaments. They dress almost wholly in their own fabrics. The men dress in small clothes, sometimes of deer skin, tanned and handsomely colored. The women wear a loose black robe, ornamented around the bottom with a red border, which is sometimes figured; and when not engaged they use a large shawl of the same color and material. Their different modes of putting up the hair, show whether they are single, married or matrons. The weapons of this interesting nation are the lance, bow and arrow; which they use with dexterity. These advantages and improvements among the uncivilized, if they may be so called, will no doubt astonish many; but the characters of those, who have given us the information, are so far above suspicion, that we should feel little reluctance in vouching for the truth of every fact … “ A second article entitle “The Nabijos” dated April 10, 1824, Franklin, Missouri, corroborated the facts of the Intelligencer article, and appeared in the Missouri Republican on April 26, 1824. April 19 - Navajos drove off five oxen from the vicinity of Abiquiu. Pursued by the owners ,they were overtaken at El Rito de la Gallina. One of the Navajos “by the name of Capitancillo of that tribe calling himself Jose Miguel” and the others made demonstrations and signs of war. As the pursuers returned they saw at a distance a group of Navajos together with a small band of Utes who threatened to take their horses. August 27 - Five Navajo children, purchased and adopted by the Pino family, were baptized at Laguna. In the same year six other Navajos were baptized at Laguna, 16 at Santa Fe, 9 at Belen, 7 at Tome, 6 at Albuquerque, 5 at Abiquiu, 4 at Socorro, 3 each at Taos and San Felipe, 2 each at Cochiti and San Juan, and one each at Santa Cruz, Nambe, and Sandia, most of whom had been purchased or captured. Oct 30 - The Alcalde of Laguna reported that Navajos had stolen the horse herd and mule belonging to a Luis Baca. Dec 13 - It was reported from Jemez that Navajos recently raided the Pueblo of Santa Ana, destroyed some houses, and captured six sheep. Dec 23 - Domingo Salazar reported to the Governor that within the week Navajos had stolen seven cows and five horses from the Pueblo of Santa Ana	Mexican Constitution adopted, guaranteeing equality of citizenship to all under Mexican jurisdiction, including Indian peoples in California. None of the four U.S. Presidential candidates received an electoral majority: Andrew Jackson, 99 votes; John Quincy Adams, 84 votes; William H. Crawford, 41 votes; and Henry Clay, 37 votes. All were Democratic-Republicans, except Adam, who was a National Republican. U.S. signed a territorial treaty with Russia, which agreed to 50 degrees 40 minutes as the southern limit of her territory. The U.S. Congress enacted the General Survey Bill authorizing federal plans for roads which may be needed for national and commercial purposes. Jedediah Smith of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company discovered the gateway to the West through the Rocky Mountains at South Pass, Wyoming. The Weavers’ strike at Pawtucket, R.I., was the first recorded strike by women. The first white man to discover the Great Salt Lake was James Bridger, an explorer, trapper, and scout. Auburn (N.Y.) Penitentiary housed prisoners in cell blocks, and they performed labor in groups. An alternative to this system was that of Pennsylvania in which prisoners were in solitary confinement and they worked alone. Civil war broke out in the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman Sultan appealed to Muhammad Ali of Egypt for help. Egyptians seized Crete. Revolutionary forces defeated Spanish royalist forces at Junin and Ayacucho in Peru. Anglo-Burmese war began; British captured Rangoon. Dutch ceded Malacca to Britain in return for Bengkulen in Sumatra. Beethoven, now totally deaf, composed Symphony No. 9 in D Minor. After years of controversy, Parliament established the National Gallery, in London. America's first school of science and engineering opened. It was later called Renesselaer Polytechnic Institute. Sadi Carnot, French military engineer, published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, in which the efficiency of steam engines was examined.
1825	March 9 - Governor Vizcarra, soon to be succeeded by Lt. Colonel Antonio Narbona, wrote the Comandante-General that he intended to start on a campaign March 9 with troops from the Santa Fe Garrison, re-enforced by citizen militia. Three Navajo prisoners were being held in Santa Fe and Vizcarra wrote “ … that if in the expedition which I am going to undertake, some more prisoners are captured, I will take them all with me when I leave this territory so that they may be placed at Veracruz or another presidio, because I believe that little would be gained by giving them their freedom here. And if the other members of their Nation see them disappear, it may serve to stimulate (peace) and they will do no evil”. Informed while on campaign that Navajos were gathering in the vicinity of Abiquiu, Vizcarra sent a message that they should be seized. The Alcalde and his forces captured 41 Navajos men and women, all but three of which were turned over to Vizcarra. The 38 captives Vizcarra set at liberty on his return to Santa Fe. April 7 - A detachment from Vizcarra’s March 9th campaign commanded by Brevet Captain Jose Caballero, surprised a band of Navajos on this date, and according to one account killed 11, including their war captain, and captured 20 more of the same band. Another account stated that 11 warriors and three women were killed, and 22 captives taken. The captives Vizcarra “ … placed at the disposition of the Senor Jefe Politico so that he might distribute them to the inhabitants of the territory at his discretion.” Dec 3 - Jose Antonio Sandoval at Jemez complained to the Governor: “ … the Navajos are behaving worse each day, for what is happening among them is an indescribable thing, according to the repeated complaints of robberies that they do in this jurisdiction, for they robbed from Don Jesus Gallego the following things: a dipper, an ax, a hoe and all the corn that he had, they robbed from Senor Alcalde Don Tomas Sandoval two cows that he had calved, from Don Pedro Valdez they robbed a horse and they killed a son of Don Antonio Montoya, they deprived him of his clothes and arms, they beat him, too much, and there are innumerable small robberies, … “ On this same day three Navajo children, purchased by Don Juan Antonio Baca, were baptized at Pena Blanca, During the same year, 72 Navajo captives, purchased individuals, servants, and others were baptized, 21 in the Santa Fe Parish, 17 at Pecos, 6 at Laguna, 5 at Sandia, 4 each at Tome, San Iledfonso, and Cochiti, 3 each at Picuris and Santa Cruz, 2 each at Taos and Belen, and one at Albuquerque.	U.S. Congress adopted a policy of removal of eastern Indian tribes to territory west of the Mississippi River. Anglos settled on Indians lands; the Indian frontier was established. Seminole Wars continued. Oseola became a leader in the ongoing Seminole resistance to the U.S. government. Agents presured the Seminoles to move to lands west of the Mississippi River. The U.S. claimed rights to all the Seminole lands east of the Mississippi. Creek Indians rejected treaty ceding all their lands in Georgia to the U.S. government. Yet, William McIntosh, a mixed-blood Creek Chief, accepted a 25 thousand dollar bribe to sign a treaty ceding all Creek lands in Georgia and vast tracts in Alabama. The Creek Council, which had voted a death sentence for any member of the Nation who sold communally held Creek land, had McIntosh killed. President John Quicy Adams rejected the McIntosh Creek Treaty but negotiated another one in 1926 which the U.S. retained some of the Creek lands. The U.S. House of Representatives chose Adams (National Republican) as U.S. President. John C. Calhoun (Democratic-Republican) was elected Vice President during the 1824 election. Frances Wright, Social Reformer, established the Nashoba community near Memphis Tenn., for training Negroes to make possible their colonization outside of the United States. The first significant strike for a 10-hour day was called in Boston, Mass., by 600 carpenters. Erie Canal was completed. New York Governor, DeWitt Clinton, opened the canal to the public. It was the first great American civil engineering work, and became an important commercial route connecting the East with the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. Tejas (Mexican territory) was opened to settlement to U.S. citizens. Czar Nicholas I crushed the uprising of the Decembrists, members of the secret revolutionary society in Russia. Turks subdued the Greeks in the Peoloponnesus. Bolivia proclaimed its independence. British began war against the Ashanti on the Gold Coast (Ghana) of Africa. Java revolted against the Dutch control. Javanese are subdued in 1830; Dutch extended their control to the interior. France’s Law of Indemnity compensated the nobles for losses during the revolution. Portugal recognized Brazil’s independence. Stevens, an American, built Action, an experimental steam locomotive. Thomas Kensett, N.Y. canner, patented tin-plated cans. André Ampére, French Physicist, developed the Electromagnetic Theory, which explained the connected relationship of electricity and magnetism. Faraday isolated Benzene. British workers were allowed to organize into labor unions. The Bolshoi Ballet was established in Moscow. World population reached one billion, double the population of the planet in 1500. It had taken from 8000 B.C. to A.D. 1500 to reach 500 million.
1826	Navajos lived along the south edge of the Little Colorado River, also known at that time as the Yaquesila (“Apaches .. Il parait aussi que les Nabajoa? Qui demeurent le long de la rive meridionale du Yaquesila, sont une autre tribu de cette nombreuse nation.” ) Jan 8 - Three Navajo children, ages 5, 6, and 7, purchased by Don Juan Antonio Baca, were baptized at Pena Blanca. During the same year, 38 Navajos, mostly captives, were baptized, 9 at Santa Fe, 8 at Tome, 5 each at Pecos and Sandia, 3 at Laguna, 2 each at Belen, Albuquerque, and Cochiti, and one each at Picuris and Santa Cruz. March 24 - Pablo Baca of Belen wrote Governor Antonio Narbona describing a recent raid committed by Navajos near Belen in which some animals were stolen from one Antonio Chaves. Baca requested the aid and support of 150 troops for 15 days to go in pursuit. Oct 8 - A delegation of four Jemez Indians, having visited the Navajos at Chuska and conferred with the headmen, returned with the news that the Navajos wanted to continue in peace and have their captives returned to them. They complained that they had also been raided recently by two parties of whites.	Creek Indians signed the Treaty of Washington, which voided the previous treaty and ceded less land to the U.S. government. The Creeks moved in 1827. The U.S. Senate reluctantly approved the U.S. delegates to the Panama Congress, called by Latin American republics to plan union against Spain and Europe. One delegate died on route; another arrived after the Congress adjourned. Jedediah Strong Smith, Explorer, and Fur Trapper, of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, led an expedition from the Great Salt Lake, to explore the American Southwest, and blazed the first overland route to California. He became the first white man to travel the length of Utah, from north to south, and west to east. The first American railroads built were short-line systems, powered by cable systems, horses, or sails. Persia attacked Russian possessions in Transcaucasia. Russia declared war on Persia. Ottoman Sultan had the unruly Janissaries (elite Turkish corps) massacred in their barracks at Constantinople. The Treaty of Yandabu ended Anglo-Burmese War. British secured Assam, Arakan, and the Tenasserim coast. British also signed a treaty with Siam. Dost Muhammad became Emir (Prince) of Afghanistan. Cooper, and American, published Last of the Mohicans. Felix Mendelssohn, established himself as a leading German Composer with his Overture to Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Japanese Artist, Hokusai, began his famous series of wood-block prints, “Thirty-six Views of Mt. Fuji”, finishing in 1833. Benjamin Disraeli, British Politician and Writer, anonymously published his first novel, Vivian Grey. Samuel Morey, Connecticut Inventor, patented an internal combustion engine. America’s first reflecting telescope was built by Amasa Holcomb in Mass. Davy’s last lecture, On the Relation of Electrical and Chemical Changes, won him the Royal Medal, in London. Bessel designed a pendulum that required exactly one second per swing.
1827	In his sketch of the Hopis in 1828, George C., Yount, a contemporary of the “Mountain Men”, wrote: “ … They never raise nor use horses - Other bad people, they say would steal them - …They were never wage war - Everything sanguinary is uncongenial - At one time an individual of the Navajos, who live Northeast & contiguous, had murdered a highly respectable Moco (Hopi), in a manner quite unprovoked & under aggravating circumstances, & some very bad people of the Navajos came into the town - But they were not molested, save that an urgent request was issued from the ruling council to these bad men to leave the town soon as convenient - No spirit of revenge or retaliation was entertained - They only expressed an apprehension that the relatives of the deceased might be tempted to avenge a brothers blood - … They use no fire arms & entertain no admiration of skill in the use of them - … But how came they there? - By what unknown & mysterious means have they been kept so pure, so good, so simple, situated as they have been, during untold generations, in the midst of tribes so vile, so barbarous, so lost to all the better feelings of man’s degenerate race? - … & yet they have remained there, while thousands, whose hand is against every man, have been passing & re-passing them continually - … “ The Navajos at this time were apparently accustomed to visit the Hopi towns. How warmly they were received or trusted, is conjectural. Jan 4 - Manuel, a Navajo boy about 2 months old, was baptized at Tome. During the same year 19 other Navajo captives, servants, and adopted slaves were baptized, 4 at Laguna, 4 at Belen, 3 at Santa Fe, 2 each at Sandia and Santa Cruz, one each at San Juan, Socorro, Taos, and another at Tome. March 6 - It was reported by Mariano Martin that Navajos had recently stolen a team of oxen and one cow from the vicinity of Abiquiu. May 28 - Manuel Armijo notified Colonel Antonio Narbona, Comandante-General of New Mexico, that Navajos recently stole 40 head of stock in the vicinity of the Rio del Oso at San Juan de los Caballeros (San Juan Pueblo). June 13 - Mariano Martin from Abiquiu notified Governor Manuel Armijo that the Navajos entered unharmed the vicinities of Abiquiu and Canada to steal stock from the inhabitants. Only the night before they robbed some horses from Canada, and from some shepherds they had taken axes, dippers, and other belongings and then escaped to the Sierra del Valle. Five days later, it was reported that Navajos had taken some animals from the neighborhood of Isleta Pueblo, and pursuit had followed. June 27 - It was reported from Jemez by Mariano Martin that Navajos raided the Valle Grande, and that troops were to leave June 29th in pursuit to try to retrieve the animals stolen. July 11 - Mariano Martin again reported to Governor Armijo, as he had on previous occasions, that Navajos were committing raids in the vicinity of Abiquiu almost every day, and with 36 men under retired Sergeant Pablo Trujillo, he was attempting to put a stop to them. July 22 - A Navajo captive woman, servant of Don Clemente Esquibel, was baptized in Santa Fe. During the same year Navajo captives were baptized at Sandia Pueblo, Sausal near Belen, and another at Santa Fe. August 4 - It was reported that Navajos raided near Belen taking 29 sheep from the Mexican, Joaquin Padilla. Dec 3 - Jose Antonio Sandoval at Jemez notified the Governor regarding thefts and slayings committed by the Navajos in the Jurisdiction of Jemez. In his letter to the Governor, he listed the property and animals stolen, and the deaths committed against the persons of Jesus Gallego, Antonio Montoya who also lost a child, and the Alcalde Tomas Sandoval. He requested that men and arms be furnished from the Jurisdictions of Alameda, Cochiti, and Jemez.	Path Killer, the influential Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, died. The Cherokee constitutional convention adopted a new political system for the Cherokee, modeled on that of the U.S. government. Path Killer’s strategy had been to restructure political and economic institutions so that the Cherokee could better resist U.S. pressures for removal to lands in the West, negotiate more successfully in Washington, and stop individual Cherokee leaders from selling off communally held lands. First Negro newspaper, Freedom’s Journal, was published in New York City, edited by John Brown Russwurm and Samuel Cornish. Protectionists (mainly northern manufacturers) demanded higher tariffs at Harrisburg convention. Southerners opposed trariffs. Sectional differences in U.S. increase between the North and South. U.S. and Britain agreed to joint occupation of the Oregon Territory. The U.S. Congress gave the U.S. President the right to call out the militia. France, Britain, and Russia demanded an armistice from the Turks to end war with Greece. Sultan refused. French, British, and Russian squadrons destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleets at the Battle of Navarino. Argentine and Uruguayan forces defeated the Brazilians at the Battle of Ituzaingó. Argentina and Brazil both claimed Uruguay. Russia defeated Persia and seized Tabriz and Erivan (part of Armenia). Thomas Cole, American, painted “Last of the Mohicans”. Audubon, American, published Birds of American, a collection of 435 lifelike painting, many showing birds in action. Unable to interest American printers. Audubon’s drawings were released in Europe where he was acclaimed a genius. French-American students in New Orleans, La., organized a procession of street maskers on Shrove Tuesday, starting the Mardi Gras celebration. The preface to French Writer Victor Hugo’s drama, Cromwell, called for freedom from rigid literary styles and was later adopted as the rallying call of Romantic writers in France. Georg Oh, German Physicist, published important work on the theory and uses of electrical currents. Karl Ernst von Baer, Est. physician, discovered the mammalian ovum (egg), thus proving that mammals actually develop from eggs. Issac Coffin, British Admiral, born in Boston, Mass., opened America’s first nautical school in Nantucket, Mass. Friction matches, called Lucifers, were introduced in England.
1828		Sequoyah (also known as George Gist), who had invented a Cherokee alphabet and system of writing, used this new language to create a Cherokee newspaper. Andrew Jackson, elected President of the U.S. When he succeeded to the presidency, he was supported by the richest men in the southern states, who wanted to expand their cotton plantations into the fertile lands held by the Creeks, Choctaws, and the other tribes of the South. Jackson set in motion the removal to the West of all the southeastern tribes in Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and Louisiana, accomplishing from the White House, what his armies in the field could not. The Georgia legislature passed a series of laws extending the state’s jurisdiction over the Cherokee. The laws were designed to break up the Cherokee nation and take its lands. Since legally only the federal government could have jurisdiction over Indians, the state laws were unconstitutional. But Jackson, as president, did not enforce the legal authority of the federal government over the state of Georgia because of the pending Indian Removal Bill in Congress. Georgia’s Senators and Congressmen had introduced this legislation in order to make it federal policy to move all the tribes of the Southeast across the Mississippi. John Ross, Cherokee tribal leader and Path Killer’s Secretary, became Principal Chief, under a new system of popular election. A successful merchant and slave owner, John Ross, dressed in fashionable clothes, drove a handsome carriage, and was the equal of any of his white aristocratic southern neighbors. He inherited Path Killer’s role as the leader of the conservatives in the Cherokee nation, who wanted to preserve the integrity of the Cherokee nation from U.S. demands for land cessions. Using the moneys from annuity payments, he built a national capital at New Echota, with imposing buildings for different branches of Cherokee government. Between 1828 and 1866, Ross led the Cherokee conservative majority and worked unsuccessfully to preserve Cherokee national and territorial independence from U.S. encroachments. 1828 - 1835 - The first American Indian newspaper, the Cherokee newspaper, the Phoenix, was published in Echota, Georgia. The newspaper had columns in English and Cherokee. It was edited by Elias Boudinot, a full-blooded Cherokee who had gone to school in Connecticut. The Cherokee also had their own system of schools, public roads, agriculture, mills, and a well-organized political system based on a written constitution. In many ways they were more advanced than the white settlers who wanted to claim their territory.
1829	Feb 21 - Sandoval from Jemez, again notified the Governor that further robberies against his person, Jose Maria Garcia and Fernando Montoya, from the Jurisdiction of Jemez, had been committed by the Navajos. March 7 - Jose Antonio Sandoval and Miguel Garcia of Jemez reported separately to the Governor and the Comandante-General that Navajos had robbed 130 sheep from Francisco Sandoval of the Jurisdiction of Jemez. The Navajos were pursued to the Mesa Azul (Chacra Mesa) and to where they had their rancherias but the sheep were not recovered. Garcia further complained of continuous depredations and insults, misery, and pain caused by the Navajos and asked for the help of troops. In answer to the request, 15 men with arms and ammunition were dispatched to Jemez to patrol the frontier against Navajo incursions. April 14 - A Mexican expedition under orders of Captain Don Jose Antonio Vizcarra returned from a campaign against the Navajos in which 11 Navajos warriors and three women were killed and 22 Navajos of both sexes were made captive. The place of battle is not recorded. Aug 6 - Justice Sandoval at Jemez reported that Navajos had raided Abiquiu and stolen 30 head of stock. Aug 13 - Sandoval, at Jemez, requested help from the Governor after Navajos raided the Pueblo of Santa Ana stealing four horses. They were pursued, unsuccessfully, “to the Cerro Cabezon”. Aug 16 - Navajos from Tunicha reported to Mexicans at Jemez that “the Utes have come inviting them to join the war” against the Mexicans, but the Navajos had declined, preferring to remain at peace. Sept 11 - Justice Sandoval at Jemez reported to Governor Jose Antonio Chavez that Navajos sacked and robbed citizens in Jemez Jurisdiction: “They have stripped a mayordomo of mine, having taken from him his arms, by treachery his ax, and all the utensils of interest that were in the ranch. From the citizen Juan Casador, they have taken a gun, an ax, and all the most valuable goods, they have killed a mare of a native of the Pueblo of Jemez … “ On the same date, Narbona, Navajo Chief, also known as Hastiin Naat’aanii, sent word that he wished to visit the capital at Santa Fe, and requested the Governor to furnish him with an escort of 100 men because of his fear of Comanches. Sept 26 - Justice Sandoval at Jemez reported that Navajos robbed the citizen Juan Montoya of six horses and one mule. Sandoval further complained of the despotism of the Navajos. Nov 5 - Two Navajo captives, a girl and a boy, both 12 years old and servants of Don Francisco Chaves, were baptized at Los Padillas by the Priest from Isleta. During the same year a 10-year-old girl had also been baptized there. Navajos were also baptized during the year at Albuquerque and at La Cuesta near Pecos Nov 7 - The earliest documented expedition to cross the Navajo country from east to west was that led by Commandant Citizen Antonio Armijo, including a 60-man caravan which left Abiquiu, New Mexico, November 7, 1829, to explore a trade route to California. The expedition passed along the northern part of Navajo country including the Canyon Largo, the San Juan River, the Chinle Valley, Marsh Pass, Navajo Mountain, and crossed the Colorado River at the Crossing of the Fathers. Armijo and troops returned to Jemez April 25, 1830.	Gold discovered on Cherokee lands. Violating treaties that preserved the integrity of Cherokee lands from white encroachment, thousand of whites poured into Cherokee lands searching for gold. President Jackson removed all federal troops and gave a free hand to the Georgia militia. State officials enforced the rights of the white trespassers over the Cherokees. The Georgia legislature passed laws making it illegal for Cherokees to mine gold, to testify against a white man, or to hold political assemblies. In Washington, John Ross, protested illegal treaty violations, the suspension of Cherokee civil rights, and the intrusion of Georgia laws on Cherokee sovereignty which made it impossible for the Cherokee government to function. He met with little success, as the Cherokee had no voice in democratic institutions and the public was ill-informed about Georgia’s treatment of its Indian nations. U.S. President, Andrew Jackson, introduced the spoils systems into national politics - the practice of basing appointments on party service. Jackson’s unofficial political advisers were called his “Kitchen Cabinet”. Workingmen’s Party was formed in New York. Party advocated social reform, free public education, new banking laws, and non-imprisonment for debt. Movement spread to other states in the North. Cantonal constitution of Switzerland were revised to include universal suffrage, freedom of the press, and equality before the law. Russians capture Adrianople, Kars, and Erzerum. Ottoman Empire on the verge of collapse concluded the Treaty of Adrianople. Russia secured the mouth of the Danube and the east coast of the Black Sea. Turks razed all fortresses in Wallachia and Moldavia and recognized Greek autonomy. Irish political leader, Daniel O’Connell, agitated for reppeal of the parliamentary union of Great Britain and Ireland. Edgar Allan Poe, American, anonymously published his first work, Tamerlane and Other Poems. Mendelssohn performed Bach’s St. Matthew Passion, sparking renewed interest in Bach’s works. Rossini completed his final major composition, the opera William Tell. Delacrois painted, “The Death of Sardanapalus”, often considered to be his masterpiece. The first school in American for the blind opened in Boston, Mass. Encyclopedia Americana was published in Philadelphia by Francis Lieber. It is the first American encyclopedia. William A. Burt, Mass. Surveyor, invented the "typographer", an early typewriter. Bigelow, American, coined the word "technology", and published The Elements of Technolgy. Gustav-Gaspard Coriolis, French Engieer, published On the Calculationof Mechanical Action, in which he coined the term kinetic energy. Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, Russian Mathematician, published his work which established him as the founder of non-Euclidian Geometry. Catholic Emancipation Act in Britain allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament and to hold public office. English Statesman, Robert Peel, founded the Metropolitan Police force in London, England. The police became known as "Bobbies". The first Cambridge-Oxford boat race took place at Henley, England; Oxford won. The earliest recorded "Fat Ladies" in America were Deborah Tripp, who at age 3, weighed 125 pounds, and Susan Tripp, 5 years old, 205 pounds.
1830	Jan 31 - Navajos raided one Jose Segundo Garcia of the Jurisdiction of Jemez and Cebolleta, stealing from him 11 head of stock. May 7 - Don Jose Antonio Vizcarra reported that the official Navajo interpreter should be sent to the rancherias of Cebolleta - later known as Cebolla Sandoval, Antonio Sandoval, or just Sandoval - and Francisco Baca of the Dine Ana’aii or “Enemy Navajo”, to investigate a report of four horses stolen on this date, as well as some animals that had been lost by Antonio Armijo’s expedition on its recent return from California. The Mexicans hoped to profit by disaccord which existed between Baca and Sandoval. July 27 - The Alcalde of Jemez informed Governor Jose Antonio Chavez that the Chieftains of the Navajo Nation, and some 700 Navajos would meet at Ojo del Chico on the Rio Puerco with representatives of the Mexican Republic on August 11 to discuss reparations for damages and robberies committed by “the malevolent of their Nation”. They agreed to wait three days there for the Mexicans. Oct 31 - A Navajo captive woman, 26 years old and a servant of Dona Ana Maria Salasar, was baptized at Los Santos Angeles near San Juan Pueblo. She was given the Christian name of Maria Josefa. During the same year, Navajos were baptized at Belen, Albuquerque, Sandia, and Taos.	The Indian Removal Law passed by Congress. President Jackson signed the Indian Removal Law requiring the removal of all southern Indians to new lands west of the Mississippi. The law created Indian Territory in what is now Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Kansas. Since little was known of what was called the “Great American Desert”, it was assumed that no whites would ever want those lands and that the tribes could be safely relocated there. Indian Territory was the forerunner of the reservation system. Because of this law, the Sauk and Fox Indian Nation in Illinois were forced to move west of the Mississippi. The Choctaw removal and the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. The Choctaw had opposed Tecumseh’s confederation, had fought on the American side during the War of 1812, and were one of the tribes who had helped Andrew Jackson save New Orleans from the British in 1815. They held huge tracts of lands in Alabama and Mississippi and were a prosperous people with rich farmlands. Many had intermarried with whites and some lived in two-story plantation houses. They were considered a pro-American people, and ironically it was the U.S. India agents’ familiarity with the Choctaw that made them the first subjects of the Indian Removal Law. Through bribes and coercion the Choctaw tribes “agreed” in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek to give up all their lands in Mississippi and move to western Arkansas (Oklahoma). The treaty also provided for Choctaw education: “ … the U.S. agrees and stipulates that for the benefit and advantage of the Choctaw people, and to improve their condition, there shall be educated under the direction of the President and at the expense of the U.S., forty Choctaw youths for twenty years.” Of the 13,000 Choctaws who migrated, 4,000 died of hunger, exposure, or disease. Another 7,000 refused to move and stayed in Mississippi, where they became subject to state laws and were legislated out of tribal existence. Fifth U.S. census showed a population of 12.8 million, including about 150,000 immigrants who arrived between 1820 and 1830. The census also showed that 8.8% of the population lived in cities of 2500 or more inhabitants. Mexico forbade further U.S. colonization in Tejas. Louis Philippe became King of the French ("the Citizen King") as revolution forced Charles X to abdicate. France invaded Algeria. Poles rebelled in Warsaw against Russian rule. Venezuela and Ecuador separated from Greater Columbia to become independent republics. The rest of Greater Columbia (Columbia and Panama) was renamed New Granada. Serbia became an autonomous state with Milosh Obrenovich as hereditary Prince. Belgians revolted against the Dutch King. Oliver Wendell Holmes, American, wrote the poem "Old Ironsides", about the battleship, USS Constitution. The poem, which brought the author great popularity, prevented the planned scrapping of the historic vessel. Daniel Emmett, American, composed "Old Dan Tucker", one of the most popular minstrel tunes. Frederic Francois Chopin, Polish Composer, debuted in Warsaw with a performance of his Piano Concerto No. 2 in F Minor. Henry, an American, discovered electromagnetic induction and electromotive force, when he used magnetism to produce electricity. Peter Cooper, N.Y. Manufacturer, built Tom Thumb, America's first commercially successful steam locomotive. It lost a race against a horse when an engine belt slips. Charles Grice, American's first Veterinarian, opened an animal hospital in New York City. Joseph Smith, founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Mormons) in Fayette, N.Y. The Mormons were forced by opposition to their beliefs to go to Ohio, then Missouri, and then Illinois. They finally settled in Utah under the leadership of Brigham Young. National education system was introduced into Ireland. English was the only language of instruction.
1831	July 25 - An adult male captive, “de la Tribu Navajo”, was baptized at Sandia Pueblo. On the same day, a Navajo boy, “redeemed” by Don Manuel Armijo, was baptized at Valencia near Tome. Later during the same year, a 2-year-old Navajo girl was baptized at Belen. Sept 28 - Instructions were issued by J.A.V. (Vizcarra?) to the interpreters for the Utes and the Navajos to proceed to the Navajo Province and locate an Indian woman who had been stolen by the Utes and sold to the Navajos.	Cherokee Nation v. Georgia. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld Georgia's order for the removal of the Cherokee Indians beyond the Mississippi. The Cherokee sued Georgia in the U.S. Supreme Court for an injunction against the execution of Georgia’s laws against them. To establish jurisdiction, they used the argument that since the Court had authority over cases involving foreign nations and a state of the U.S., it could rule over a dispute between an Indian nation and a U.S. state. The Supreme Court affirmed the sovereignty of the Indian nations but said they were not foreign nations, hence the Court had no jurisdiction and denied the injunction. Chief Justice Marshall described Indian nations as “domestic dependent nations” whose relationship to the U.S. resembled “that of a ward to his guardian”. De Tocqueville, a French historian visiting the United States, observed the Choctaw on their Trail of Tears and wrote of the process of dispossession. His book, Democracy in America, became one of the most widely read books in Europe and the United States on the new Americans. Nat Turner lead an unsuccessful Negro slave revolt in which about 55 white people were killed in Southampton County, Virginia. Turner was captured and hanged. William Lloyd Garrison, an American, founded the Abolitionist periodical The Liberator, which urged the immediate release of all slaves. Anti-Masonic Party, first political third party in U.S., meant in Baltimore, Maryland. Party was opposed to U.S. President Andrew Jackson and was absorbed by the Whigs after 1836. Belgium separated from the Netherlands. Leopold I became King of the Belgians. Russians suppressed Polish rebellion. "Russification" of Poland began. Austria crushed uprising in Modena, Parma, and the Papel States but failed to suppress Italy's nationalist movement. British took control of the state of Mysore, India. Radical agitation, violence, and workers' uprisings occurred in France. French king and legislature were unresponsive to the political and economic desires of the lower classes. Poems by Edgar Allan Poe was published. The Trumbull Gallery at Yale University, the first U.S. art gallery associated with a university, was founded by Benjamin Silliman, John Trumbull's nephew. First use of the term "Old Glory" to mean the U.S. flag. The term caught during the Civil War when Union troops commonly used it. Hugo published The Hunchback of Notre Dame, one of the most popular historical novels ever written. Henry, and American, built the first electric motor, electrical relay, electromagnetic telegraph, and electric bell. Brown discovered and names the cell nucleus. Faraday produced electric current by a change in magnetic intensity (electromagnetic induction). Charles Darwin, English Naturalist, embarked on a 5-year voyage aboard the HMS Beagle as the ship's naturalist. English Navigator, James Ross, planted the British flag at the north magnetic pole.
1832	Navajos lived near the Bear’s Ears in southeastern Utah, at the head of Grand Gulch where the Navajo, Hastiin Beyal, was born. At this time, they were having trouble with the Utes. July 9 - An Act of Congress authorized the President to appoint a Commissioner of Indian Affairs to manage all matters arising out of Indian relations, subject to the direction of the Secretary of War and regulations prescribed by the President. Two years later - 1834 - Congress established a Department of Indian Affairs. It was not until 1849 that the Office of Indian Affairs passed from military to civil control with the creation of the Home Department of the Interior. Elbert Herring became the first legislatively - authorized Commissioner. July 30 - Navajos in company with some Ute Indians stole 10 horses from the Pueblo of San Juan. October 1 - The detachment of troops at Socorro was robbed by Navajos “who have taken the mounts of the troops at Socorro”. The troops were unable to give pursuit because they had no horses. Six days later - October 7 - the Navajos took another horse herd from Galisteo which belonged to a Juan Esteban Pino. Oct 26 - Navajo Chief Jose Caballero presented himself to the Comandante-General in Santa Fe to report that he had gone to Tunicha and recovered from the Navajos, who offered no resistance, the Mexican troops’ mounts that had been stolen at Socorro on October 1, except for six that had gotten lost and three that had died. Dec 26 - A Navajo girl captive, 6 years old, was baptized at Sandia Pueblo and given the Christian name of Ana Maria de la Merced. Earlier the same year another Navajo woman had been baptized there and named Maria de la Encarnacion.	Worcester v. Georgia. In this suit, brought by a white missionary, Samuel Worcester, on behalf of the Cherokee, Chief Justice Marshall actively ruled for the Cherokees. The Supreme Court found that treaties signed between the U.S. and the Cherokee nation recognized the Indians’ right to self-government and the obligation of the U.S. to protect that right. The U.S. was legally bound to treat Indians “as nations, respect their rights, and manifest a firm purpose to afford that protection which treaties stipulate”. Marshall asserted that “the acts of Georgia are repugnant to the Constitution, laws and treaties of the U.S. … The whole intercourse between the U.S. and this nation (Cherokee) is by our Constitution and laws vested in the government of the U.S.” President Jackson took no federal action and encouraged Georgia to ignore the decision. He was reported to have responded: “John Marshall has made his decision, now let’s see him enforce it”. Black Hawk’s War. Black Hawk, a Sauk Chief, living in what is now Rock Island, Illinois, returned home to plant corn after spending the winter in Iowa. He found his village and lands invaded by white settlers. The settlers refused to move, claiming the land was theirs, purchased from a land company. They called on the Illinois militia (which included Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis), to drive the Sauk out. Pursued through Illinois and Wisconsin by 8,000 state militia and 150 federal troops, Black Hawk’s troops were ultimately defeated and massacred after receiving heavy casualties from cannon mounted on a steamboat at Bad Axe River in Wisconsin. When a 1,300 man federal army arrived at the same river, Black Hawk’s troops were caught between the two forces. Some tried to surrender under a white flag of truce and were massacred. Black Hawk was captured and forced to cede the eastern part of Iowa a punishment for war. The Sauk pledged never to live, hunt, fish, or plant on their previous homelands in Illinois. Andrew Jackson (Democrat) was re-elected U.S. President; Martin Van Buren was elected Vice-President on the Democratic ticket. Samuel F. B. Morse, Massachusetts's Inventor, designed an improved electromagnetic telegraph. He applied for a patent in 1837. Walter Hunt, American, invented, but did not patent, a lock-stitch sewing machine. Sir Charles Wheatstone, English Physicist, invented the Stereoscope. First of the famous American sailing Clipper ships, the Ann McKim, was launched at Baltimore, Maryland. It structure was completely new, and its design was later preferred to all others. New York & Harlem Railroad (New York City) began operating with the first streetcar in the world. Built by John Stephenson, it was the "John Mason", a horse-drawn car which ran on lower Fourth Ave. A Reaper invented by Cyrus H. McCormick was successfully demonstrated. The Khedive of Egypt opposed British plans to construct a canal at Suez linking the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The plans were put in limbo while he reorganized Egypt on the French administrative model and went to war against the Ottoman empire, acquiring new lands in Arabia, the Sudan, Khartoum, Crete, and Syria. Egyptian Army under Ibrahim Pasha, son of Muhammad Ali, captured Acre, Damascus, and Aleppo and defeated the main Turkish Army at the Battle of Konia. Russia offered help to the Ottoman Sultan. Goethe published Faust: Part II Ando Hiroshige, prominent Japanese Artist in the Ukiyo-e movement, published "Fifty-three stages of the Tokaido", a series of color prints.
1833	Feb 8 - Some 80 residents of Taos, Rito Colorado, and Abiquiu, New Mexico, petitioned for, and were given a colony grant on the Conejos River in present southwestern Colorado. War with the Navajo Indians intervened, however, and prevented the permanent occupation of the tract. “In the proof presented to the Court of Private Land Claims it was shown that after the settlers had started to cultivate the land, the Indians drove or rode their horses across the plowed fields, preventing the harvest. They were not actually at war with the settlers but seemed determined to create an atmosphere of terrorism.” March 20 - A Mexican expedition was ordered to leave Santa Fe on this date and proceed to Jemez where the expedition would be joined on the 24th by 500 “residents” for a campaign against the Navajos in the Seven Lakes area northeast of present Crownpoint, New Mexico. The results of this campaign are not recorded. Nov 13 - A meteoric shower, remembered in Navajo tradition and referred to as “the time of the falling stars”, occurred on this date. It has been estimated that at one place more than 200,000 shooting stars were seen between midnight and dawn. It was at this time also that the study of meteors began.         Djasjini, a Hopi, was a boy at the time of the meteorite show of 1833, and at that time, according to him, Navajos lived on the mesas all around the Hopi villages. The Navajos and Hopis were friends and every day Navajos came to the Hopi villages. Djasjini learned to speak Navajo well from being among them so much. In 1858, when he guided Lt. Joseph C. Ives’ party, Djasjini had long been a full-grown man. Nov 15 - A 3-year-old Navajo captive, “servant” of Miguel Chabes, was baptized at Laguna and given the Christian name of Maria Gertrudis. Nov 24 - It was reported to the Alcalde at Jemez that some cattle stolen by Navajos had been taken from the thieves by allied Chieftains Narbona, Francisco Baca, and Cebolla (Sandoval).	The state of Georgia held a lottery of Cherokee land and property, declaring Cherokee ownership of land in the state of Georgia to be illegal. Georgia officials gave away Cherokee lands and government buildings at the Cherokee capital of New Echota to holders of winning lottery tickets. John Ross lost his plantation. The Georgia militia was sent to enforce the lottery. Cherokees throughout Georgia were forcibly evicted from their homes, and their fields and livestock were seized. Black Hawk, a Sauk Chief, wrote his biography. This was the first “as told to” Indian biography and was translated by Antoine Le Claire. American Anti-Slavery Society was founded by abolitionist groups from New York and New England. Early form of baseball was played in Philadelphia by the Olympic Ball Club. Many of the rules were like those of English cricket. Oberlin College was established in Ohio as a center of Abolitionist activity. It was the first college to admit both men and women. In 1835, it became the first to admit Negroes. Publication of the Sketches and Eccentricity of Col. David Crockett, of West Tennessee, helped launch the legend of Davy Crockett throughout America. Antonio López de Santa Anna was elected President of Mexico. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire. Muhammad Ali of Egypt acquired control of all Syria. Facing defeat by Muhammad Ali, the Ottoman Sultan accepted Russian military aid and concluded the Treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi. Bavarian Prince became the first King of Greece as Otto I. German states joined the Zollverein, a union organized to eliminate trade barriers among the members of the German Confederation. Mendelssohn composed Italian Symphony, his fourth and most popular symphony. Beaumont, an American, published Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion stating that digestion was caused by chemicals released by the stomach wall. Faraday, English scientist, coined the terms electrolysis, electrolyte, anode, and cathode. Wilhelm Web, German Physicist, developed an electromagnetic telegraph. French Mathematician, Siméon-Denis Poisson published Treatise on Mechanics, which became the standard text on mechanics. East India Company's monopoly of trade in China ended. In England, Factory Act forbade the employment in textile industry of children under 9 years, restricted labor of those between 9 and 13 to a 9-hour day, and of those from 13 to 18 to a 12-hour day. Children under 13 were to have 2 hours schooling a day.
1834	Feb 6 - Blas Antonio Chaves, Alcalde of Jemez, reported to Governor Francisco Sarracino at Santa Fe that the Pueblos of Santa Ana, Zia, and Jemez, and the entire jurisdiction were very poor and demoralized because of Navajo raids and depredations, and that in answer to the Governor’s request for men and horses for a campaign against the Navajos, only a few could be supplied. Feb 21 - Navajos attacked a ranch near the Pueblo of Zia killing one man named Marcos Gallegos, “took captive two children, a burro, and other equipment from the ranches”. Thirty-six men pursued the Navajos to Mesa Prieta along the Rio Puerco, but there became so bogged down in the mud that after reaching the mesa top, they decided to return. June 4 - Maria Josefa, 20-year-old Navajo purchased by Juan Jose Martinez, was baptized at Bernalillo. During the same year, Navajos were baptized at Albuquerque and Santa Fe. July 11 - Rafael Garcia de Noriega of Jemez wrote the Governor that Navajos recently raided in a canyon near Jemez taking a mule and three horses near the settlements. He further requested that a force of 300 men be raised to fight the Navajos “who are planning to conquer the territory, … “ Aug 14 - Ambrosio Culaques at Jemez informed Governor Sarracino that the Navajo Headman Francisco Baca had moved his family from the Cebolleta area and taken refuge elsewhere and “ … the place is not known where he may be found”. The interpreter for the Navajo Tribe had been ordered to bring the headman to Jemez. Sept 4 - Two adult males from San Antonio were killed by Navajos and given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priest of Albuquerque. During harvest time a party of trappers, nearly 200 strong, “… crossed over from Williams’ Fork to the Colorado Chiquito river, at the Moquis village, where some of the men disgraced themselves .. the Moquis were a half-civilized nation, who had houses and gardens, and conducted themselves kindly, or at the worst peaceably, toward properly behaved strangers. These trappers, instead of approaching them with offers of purchase, lawlessly entered their gardens, rifling them of whatever fruit or melons were ripe, and not hesitating to destroy that which was not ripe. To this, as might be expected, the Moquises objected; and were shot down for so doing. In this truly infamous affair 15 or 20 of them were killed”. Oct 13 - During a campaign against the Navajos - October 13 to November 17 - led by Captain Blas de Hinojos, 16 Navajos were killed, three taken captive, goods and grain were seized, one captive recovered, and 15 horses and 3000 sheep seized.	Chumash enslavement ended. In California, thousands of Chumash Indians who had been enslaved by the Spanish missions were set free. One of California’s biggest tribes, they numbered almost 20,000 people and lived in villages that contained over 1,000 inhabitants each, in the area of present-day San Luis Obispo to Malibu Canyon. They spoke at least six dialects and inhabited lands as far inland as the San Joaquin Valley. The Chumash created some of the finest rock paintings in North America and were also the center of a thriving regional trading economy. Unable to recognize the complex religious underpinnings of the Chumash, the Spanish insisted they become Christians, and the missionaries sent out soldiers to the Indian villages to bring the Chumash, by force if necessary, into the missions. There they were dressed in blue uniforms, their families broken up, and men and women forced to live separately. They were ordered to work in the mission’s fields and to care for livestock, tan hides, produce candles, bricks, tiles, shoes, and other necessities of life. They died by the thousands in epidemics of smallpox and malaria. When 65 years of enslavement ended with Mexico’s secularization of the Indian missions, they were free to leave. However, their old villages had been destroyed, and their lands (that had been incorporated into lands grants of the missions) soon transformed into Mexican rancheros. The Indians became peons, on the equivalent of feudal serfs, on the new rancheros, which in a few years (after 1848 and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo) would become property of new American owners. California’s Indian population dropped from approximately 310,000 in 1769 to 30,000 by the end of the California Gold Rush in 1860. Spanish missions in California secularized by Mexico. The authority of the Catholic Church subordinated to Mexican government. Charles Babbage designed the forerunner of the computer, the “analytical engine”, a large-scaled digital calculator. Too advanced for the technology of the day, it did not evolve into the computer until the discovery of electricity. In France, Alexis de Tocqueville published Democracy in America. Based on his personal observations and travel in America, it remains one of the most acute analyses of American democracy: “Two things are astonishing about the United States: the great changeableness of most human behavior and the singular fixity of certain principles … Men bestir themselves within certain limits beyond which they hardly ever go … They love change but dread revolutions.” 1834-1835 - Treaty of New Echota. Another Cherokee leader, John Ridge, went to Washington. Although he represented only a negligible number of Cherokees, he negotiated a treaty selling of Cherokee lands for 5 million dollars and agreed to move west. The Cherokee National Council unanimously rejected the Treaty of New Echota, but the U.S. Senate ratified it. (In 1839, Ridge and his son and nephew were assassinated by the Cherokees in Oklahoma.) The Governor of Georgia, shut down the Phoenix, the Cherokee newspaper, and prepared to enforce the treaty provisions. John Ross continued to meet with Senators and Congressmen, and even the President of the United States, to have the illegal treaty annulled. It was to no avail.
1835	Jan 7 - Two Ute Indians arrived at Jemez to trade and reported that the Navajos and Utes were closely associated, and that the “rich Navajos had settled their rancherias in the Silver and Datil Mountains (La Plata and Ute Mountains) for the year” next to the Utes. Jan 14 - A large party of Navajos raided the Pueblo of Jemez taking 50 head of stock of which 18 were retrieved by the Alcalde of Jemez. One Navajo was killed in the skirmish. Fourteen horses from the herd at Zia were also taken by Navajos. Feb 8 - An expedition of about 1000 Mexicans and Jemez Indians led by Captain Blas de Hinojos, Comandante-General of New Mexico, departed Santa Fe for the Navajo country. Ascending Washington Pass 20 days later - on February 28 - the force was ambushed by Navajos. Captain Hinojos and Juan Antonio Baca, leader of one division, were killed; Salvador, Captain of the Jemez auxiliaries, was forced to jump to his death over a cliff, and many of the troops were slaughtered. The ambush was a complete rout and victory for the Navajos. The remnant of the ill-fated expedition returned to Santa Fe, March 13. In spite of their defeat, during the campaign they claimed to have killed 35 Navajo warriors, captured four of both sexes, 14 horses, 6604 sheep, and 109 cattle. March 3 - Because of the frequency of Navajo incursions, Juan Rafael Ortiz, Gobierno Politico of New Mexico, ordered the First Alcalde of Santa Fe to station a detachment of 15 armed men with supplies at the Canyon of Santa Clara for intervals of 15 days. March 10 - After some Navajos raided the Albuquerque area and drove off a herd of cattle, Julian Tenorio, First Justice of that District, wrote the Governor on this date to praise the actions and bravery of one Manuel Armijo and his men for having pursued the Navajo raiders and retrieved the stolen animals.         On this same date, the Catholic Priest at Tome gave ecclesiastical burial to three male adults, one from Casa Colorada, and two from Tome, who had been killed by the Navajos. Nine days later, on March 19, the same Priest buried another adult male at Tome, who had been killed on the road by Navajos. June 5 - J.F. Baca, Jurisdiction of Socorro, reported that on this date a large number of Navajos fell upon the settlement of Lemitar and took 2000 head of sheep and goats and carried off a shepherd, killed one man and wounded two others. On the same day, at 6 o’clock in the morning, “a great multitude of Navajos, perhaps they would number over 200, fell upon this settlement of Socorro” taking cattle, the community horse herd and milk goats and sheep of the community, and a shepherd. Pursued to the Ojo de la Culebra (Snake Spring north of Magdalena, New Mexico), the small Mexican force deemed it prudent not to attack so large a force of Navajos who, on a point in sight of the pursuers, roasted meat from the animals they had taken. July 5 - Santiago Martin from Abiquiu sent word to Governor Albino Perez that the Navajo Chief Narbona was soliciting peace with the Mexican Republic. Aug 11 - To the Alcaldes of Santa Fe, Abiquiu, Cochiti, Jemez, Laguna, Tome, Sandia, Albuquerque, Isleta, Valencia, Belen, Sabinal, San Ildefonso, Canada, Santa Clara, and San Juan. Governor Perez explained that the Navajos, to show their good intentions, were soliciting peace and the exchange of captives. Navajo leaders were to meet with representatives of the Republic at San Miguel de Jemez for negotiations. The Alcaldes were to furnish 605 mounted men from their districts for the meeting. On August 15, Perez wrote the Senor Comandante-General Inspector: “By the appointment that the Navajos have made with me at the point of San Miguel in their land for the 26th of the current month with the purpose of establishing the peace … I have decided to march the 18th of the current month with the entire strength of the troop that I can unite and 600 citizens that I have also decided should accompany me for the same purpose; and you may be sure that on my return I will report to you the final results of my expedition; you should rest in confidence that the peace repeatedly solicited by these aborigines will certainly be such that there will result from it general benefit for these inhabitants and honor to the arms under my command”.	Sarah and Angelina Grimke were the first American women to speak publicly against slavery and to advocate women’s right. The Protestant Clergy of New England condemned the southern sisters as “unnatural women”, claiming that the Bible “bade women to be silent”. The sisters, who were from a slave-owning South Carolina family, countered by publishing the first tract calling for women’s right to speak in public, to own property, and to have a political voice. 1835-1842 - Second Seminole War. The U.S. appropriated over 50 million dollars to fight the Seminoles. The war against the Seminoles was the most costly and least successful of all the American wars until Vietnam. For years the Seminoles forcibly resisted efforts of the U.S. Army and Indian agents to remove them from their lands in Florida and relocate them to the West. Between 5,000 and 10,000 U.S. troops were deployed in Florida against them. After Seminole leader Osceola led a party that ambushed the U.S. Indian agent working to gain Seminole compliance with the Removal Treaty of 1830, the second war broke out. Osceola was lured to a peace council under a white flag, then seized by American troops and put in prison. He died in prison the same year, 1837, at the age of 40. He was considered the most capable and the boldest of the Seminole leaders.         After Osceola’s capture and death, Billy Bowlegs took over as leader. He led 200 Seminole warriors in an attack on a government trading post operating on Seminole land, killing most of the American troops. The Seminoles then retreated into the Everglades, where they hid during the day and raided at night. The U.S. Army pursued them through malarial swamps in a long, frustrating war. Bowlegs eventually fought for the North in the Civil War and died in 1864. Mexico rejected Texans’ petition for statehood. Texas Revolution broke out when Mexicans tried to disarm Americans in Gonzales. Samuel Houston was made commander of the Texan army. Unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Jackson was the first attack on the life of a U.S. President. Gold was found on Cherokee land in Georgia. Cherokee Indians were forced to cede lands to U.S. Danish Author, Hans Christian Andersen, published the first volume of his fairy tales. Burden, an American, invented a horseshoe machine that was later used to make most of the horseshoes needed by the Union Army during the Civil War. America’s first cast iron bridge was built over Dunlap’s Creek in Brownsville, Pennsylvania. Coriolis described the Coriolis effect(the deflection of a moving body with respect to the Earth’s surface, caused by the Earth’s rotation), a concept important in the study of weather systems. Samuel Colt designed a pistol with a revolving cartridge cylinder. Cheaply mass-produced with interchangeable parts, the rapid fire and hand size revolver was especially useful for men on horseback. The Polka was first danced in Prague, Czechoslovakia.
1836	The Navajo, Jose Castillo, was born at Canoncito, where he grew up among other Navajos residing in that area. March 2 - Jose Francisco, a Navajo purchased by Don Juan Nepomuceno Jaramillo, was baptized at Sandia Pueblo. Another Navajo captive was also baptized there four months later and given the Christian name of Jose Salvador. June 26 - It was reported that one Rafael Lopez, who had been given a license to go and rob the Apaches (Navajos), had gone out with 11 other Mexicans, returning with 3500 sheep and goats which they claimed to have taken from some Apaches (Navajos, since Apaches were not sheepherders) who had stolen the animals and were driving them along the trail. It was learned, however, that the stock had been stolen from some Mexican herders along the Rio Salado and Rafael Lopez and his group used the story of Navajos driving the stock to cover up their crime, for which they were to be punished. July 21 - Jose Francisco Vigil, leader of an expedition made up of volunteers from the Alcaldias of San Juan, Taos, Ojo Caliente, and Abiquiu to campaign against the Navajos, was instructed as follows: “In the Navajo Nation there are at peace and trust the people or rancherias of Narbona, Sandoval, Jose Tapia, Caballada Mucha, and El Negrito, who have been at Zuni offering the Governor their cooperation in order to punish the dissidents of their nation. For that reason, it is important to guard them and to respect their interests which they deserve for this trust”. Sept 14 - An expedition composed of 2000 men in three divisions under the command of Lts. Jose Caballero, Francisco Garcia, and Jose Silva, went into the field to wage war against the Navajos in the Zuni area. During the campaign 19 Navajo warriors and one woman were killed, and one Indian captive was taken from them. Also taken from the Navajos were 108 horses and mules, 1537 sheep, “and the spoils that they left due to the vengeful ardor when they attacked them”. One of the division commanders, Lt. Francisco Garcia, was killed during the campaign and was buried at Zuni. Nov 24 - Five civilians, all male, recently killed by Navajos in an attack near Albuquerque, were given ecclesiastical burial by the Catholic Priest, Fray Jose Francisco Rodriguez. Dec 9 - In the dead of winter Governor Albino Perez led an e